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| The South Gate of Gaeseong circa early 20th century was built between 1391 and 1393. It was badly damaged during the Korean War and was rebuilt in 1954. Robert Neff Collection |
By Robert Neff
In the late 19th century, the people of Gaeseong were somewhat unlike the residents of other parts of the peninsula. When John Baptiste Bernadou, a 24-year-old ensign in the United States Navy temporarily assigned to the legation in Seoul, visited the city in early July 1884, he noted that the people of Gaeseong dressed somewhat differently from the people in Seoul.
In one of the few articles he published about Korea, he wrote: "The black hat so common in the former city [Gaeseong] is replaced by a bullock driver's hat of matting, and the green gown worn over the head as a veil by the women of the capital is not here seen."
It is a shame that he did not elaborate on some of the other differences, but fortunately, other subsequent visitors did. Some of these visitors noted the great hospitality they received from the residents ― treated to pears, dried persimmons, dates and other dainties while picnicking in the ruined palace or at the tombs. One missionary noted that they were extremely conservative ― "anything like modern life or activity" was foreign and they were "uncouth in behaviour' as they [were] in other details of life." They were also very defiant and resented the glory that once belonged to their city before the fall of Goryeo and the establishment of Joseon in 1392.
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| A small store in the early 20th century Robert Neff Collection |
In the 1890s, Mary Gifford, the wife of one of the first American teachers in Korea, verified Bernadou's earlier observation and tied it to the people's resentment of their political fate:
"The inhabitants of [Gaeseong] have never been willing to acknowledge the present dynasty, and to this day the citizens, except the unimportant [commoner], wear huge hats such as we see in Seoul worn by the countrymen. They have never forgiven providence for the fall of their dynasty and refuse to look toward his dwelling place. They declare themselves still without a sovereign."
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| Two women in Seoul are dressed to go out in the late 19th or early 20th century. Robert Neff Collection |
"All who hailed from [Gaeseong] were debarred from holding office. With the path of political preferment officially closed to them the chief incentive to the study of the classics was taken away. Deprived of other opportunities the people turned to trade; not trade on a large scale which discovers new markets, takes risks, has in it an element of adventure and results in a broadening of the interests, but rather a cautious, careful, bargaining kind of trade which develops shrewdness, persistence and endurance and cultivates an unemotional type of mind that shrinks from any great adventure of the spirit."
Economic success also bred jealousies. People in Seoul referred to their northern neighbors as low-class money-grubbers. The insults were not one-sided. One observer noted that while most people on the Korean Peninsula ate "Yi rice" (implying the Joseon Kingdom), the people of Gaeseong ate "Wang rice" ('wang' meaning king and representing the Goryeo Kingdom).
"[The people of Gaeseong] also established a new method of measuring or handling grains, casting it over the back of the hand in emptying the measure. Seeing men handling grain in the ordinary way, the writer took the measure and casting the contents over the back of the hand asked them why they did not handle it that way. One replied, 'That is the way rustics do.' Another, thinking the remark of his friend had not been sufficiently distinct added: 'That's the way they do in [Gaeseong].'"
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| Straw shoes being sold in a market in the late 19th or early 20th century. Courtesy of Diane Nars Collection |
According to the same account, farmers in the Gaeseong area often defiantly called their pigs "Seong-gye ― a name which the people dare not utter." Yi Seong-gye was the name of the founder of Joseon before being crowned as King Taejo.
Considering Gaeseong's entrepreneurship, it isn't surprising to note that in 1898, the city was said to have only one beggar. Of course, he wasn't an original inhabitant of Gaeseong, but "an importation" from Seoul.
Gaeseong travelers and merchants encountered more than insults ― they were also charged more. They were readily recognized by ferrymen and other government officials ― probably by their clothing and manners ― and were often charged twice as much for services.
With such open displays of hostility, it is somewhat understandable that people from this ancient capital tried to have as little contact with the different regions. Young women were reluctant (assuming they had any say) to marry men from other parts of the peninsula as they would have to move to their husband's residence. When a Gaeseong woman died, she looked towards her old hometown as she breathed her last breath ― at least according to an early observer.
There were other differences that originated with the city's fall from grace. Seokjeon (stone battle) is said to originate from this period.
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| A straw shoe peddler in the late 19th or early 20th century Robert Neff Collection |
According to one account from the late 1890s, Yi Seong-gye (King Taejo) employed several Manchurian generals to help defeat the Goryeo soldiers. One of the generals ― "the bravest and ablest" of them ― introduced the idea of using clubs and sticks in these stone battles "for the purpose of encouraging the war-like spirit among the people."
Apparently, it worked. According to an article appearing in the Korea Review in 1905, there were three places in Korea that were especially famed for seokjeon ― Pyongyang, Gaeseong and Seoul:
"In [Pyongyang] the people are such accurate stone throwers that it is impossible to come to hand-to-hand conflicts as they do in Seoul. They merely stand a long ways off and throw stones. In [Gaeseong] they use clubs as they do in Seoul but these are long and unwieldy and far less effective than the short clubs used here. The story is told of a famous Seoul fighter who went to [Gaeseong] with his short club and fought now on one side and now on the other and whichever side he aided invariably won the day. At last, he was 'spotted' and the gentle suggestion was made that as an interloper he be killed. He got word of this and fled the field not waiting even for supper. He got something to eat at the Imjin River and came into Seoul within twenty-four hours."
Considering the writer was based in Seoul, perhaps we can overlook his biases. Clothing, financial expertise and defiance were not the only things that made Gaeseong different from other parts of the peninsula ― many of the early visitors often described the rain.
Bernadou noted that raincoats and gear were manufactured and sold in Gaeseong ― in fact, he bought some and they are now in the Smithsonian. James Scarth Gale, a missionary, recalled his entry into the city in the early 1890s:
"Rain came on and drowned our enthusiasm, and made walking anything but pleasant. One of the signs that we were approaching the city was the large hats we saw. They are of a shape peculiar to this district, are made of straw, wide, pointed and umbrella like. They resemble the hats worn by the Buddhists, and have come down from the time when it was fashionable to dress as Buddha did."
But was all the moisture in the air caused by the rain?
Mary Gifford was informed by one knowledgeable man that there was a great waterfall in the vicinity of the city. The height of the waterfall was said to be about 4,000 feet! It is doubtful she (or anyone else) ever saw it, but according to her, it was "at least sufficient to produce a spray which rises to the height of twenty-five or more feet."
Sometimes when it rained, there was no need for raingear.
In early June 1905, a sudden "rain of dead butterflies" alarmed many of the people who were convinced it was "a very bad omen." The residents of the city took omens and portents very seriously as we shall see in our next article.
I would like to thank Diane Nars for allowing me to use one of her images and for her invaluable assistance.
Robert Neff has authored and co-authored several books, including Letters from Joseon, Korea Through Western Eyes and Brief Encounters.
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